Since then, arguably the greatest development in the field of electromedicine was when Becker (1981) electrically induced limb regeneration in frogs and rats as a model to study bioelectrical forces as a controlling morphogenetic field. Regeneration represents a return to embryonal control systems and cellular activities within a localized area. It can therefore be considered a more accessible and more observable form of morphogenesis. The complexity of instructions required to designate all of the details to recreate a finished extremity is impossible to transmit by previously understood biochemical processes alone.

Becker (1983) has proposed that a primitive direct current data transmission and control system exists in biological systems for the regulation of growth and healing. His studies of extraneuronal analog electrical morphogenetic fields have eliminated any rational arguments against the importance of bioelectricity for all the basic life processes. Becker has laid the groundwork for the medical professions to start to evolve towards a more reasonable integrated view of biology incorporating our understanding of both biochemistry and biophysics.

Björn Nordenström, M.D. (1983), former Chairman of the Nobel Assembly, has also proposed a model of bioelectrical control systems he calls Biologically Closed Electric Circuits. The principle is analogous to closed circuits in electronic technology. Nordenström's theory is that the mechanical blood circulation system is closely integrated morphologically and functionally with a bioelectrical system.

Nordenström hypothesized that ionic and nonionic compounds interact in a way that makes selective distribution and modulation of energy possible throughout the body, even over long distances. The biological circuits are switched on by both the normal electrical activity of the organs and pathological changes, such as a tumor, injury or infection. Like Becker, Nordenström views bioelectricity as the primary catalyst of the healing process.

Using the vascular interstitial system as an example, Nordenström postulated two branches of this system. The first branch, the intravascular system, proposes that walls of blood vessels act as insulators to carry energy, much like cables in a battery system. The electrical resistance of the walls of the veins and arteries is at least 200 times greater than the blood within. The intravascular plasma acts as a conductor, where ions such as sodium, calcium and chloride supply immediately available energy to the system, primarily by electrophoresis. Nordenström called these ions ionars.

According to Nordenström, delayed available energy, or potential energy, is carried by blood cells which bind oxygen, as well as other chemicals such as glucose, neutral fat, nonpolar amino acids, etc. These are all noncharged packages of energy that arrive at specific sites and are released primarily by reduction/oxidation. Nordenström termed these ergonars.

The second branch addresses the interstitial system. The tissue matrix acts as an insulator while the interstitial fluid acts as a conductor.

The main component that "closes" the system is the capillary membrane. These membranes act as junctions between the interstitial and vascular fluids allowing exchange of ionars and ergonars along gradients of electric potential.

This theory represents a comprehensive attempt to relate anatomical components in terms of electromagnetic forces, rather than limiting them to their chemical interactions. Nordenström further theorized that similar closed circuit systems exist in urinary and gastrointestinal systems. Using electrical intervention, Dr. Björn Nordenström reversed terminal cancer in most of his patients as clinical proof of his theories. Several other researchers are presently attempting to relate organ parts as electronic components in terms of their electrophysical functions.

The medical community has barely taken notice of these remarkable theories. Few practitioners are even aware of the works of Becker or Nordenström. At least Nordenström has experience with this. He pioneered a series of remarkable innovations in clinical radiology (including percutaneous needle biopsy) in the 1950s that were considered radical then, but are routinely employed by every major hospital in the world today.

Lack of education of the health care professional is the main stumbling block to acceptance of the theories and practice of electromedicine. The other problem is the wide variety of technologies available. At present, there are well over 100 different models of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulators (TENS) devices in the marketplace and an increasing number of other electrical devices. Most health care practitioners who want to utilize such technology have received little or no background training in electrobiology or electrical technology. Hence when it comes to making an educated decision on what type of instrument to choose for a practice or a particular patient, practitioners are often overwhelmed when meeting an electromedical sales representative. Purchase decisions are frequently made based on lack of knowledge, misinformation, unsubstantiated claims, and worse of all, price.

The basic unit of energy is referred to as the electron. The term elektron came from the Greeks, from amber, a fossilized resin material. When amber is rubbed, it attracts non-metallic fibrous objects such as feathers and paper. In 1600, William Gilbert suggested that all such phenomena be called electrics and the word electricity was coined. Using sulfur and friction to generate electricity, Guericke found that it had several common properties with magnetic forces, such as repulsion/attraction, transference of properties and opposite poles. Faraday termed the positive pole the anode, meaning "upper route" and the cathode, or "lower route," the negative pole. It was first thought that electrons flowed from anode to cathode. This was later found to be opposite; electrons flow from negative to positive, or cathode to anode.

Fluid-based biological systems are conductive mediums. Blood, water and lymph all conduct electricity. Various ions, such as calcium, sodium and chlorides are molecules that carry current. When current is carried by ions, secondary effects of electrolysis occur. In this process, electricity breaks the conducting fluid down into its components. In the case of water, electricity breaks the H2O molecule down into its components of two hydrogen and one oxygen atom. This process occurs within all types of tissue (e.g., nerves, muscle, bone, etc.) throughout the body.

Many interactions of this nature are highly complex and not yet thoroughly understood. Most neurotransmitters have been shown to be modified by electrical stimulation. Some are even considered to be frequency specific, but there is still a lot to learn before we can specify the effect of individual facets of a waveform.

In fluids, such as water, the sinusoidal wave is the only basic waveform. However, with electrical technology, different shaped waveforms can be built. These are often referred to as square, rectangular, triangular, sawtooth, etc. In actuality, they are composed of thousands of waves known as harmonics. This collection of harmonics is called a pulse.

Pulses are measured in cycles, or frequencies moving through a medium per second. One cycle per second is also called a Hertz (Hz). In electrical devices, the pulses have their own frequencies. Just as the collection of harmonics is called a pulse, the total frequencies (built by the resonance of harmonic frequencies) is referred to as the pulse repetition rate (PRR). It is the speed at which the pulse moves. For example, a 1 Hz pulse will have harmonic frequencies that build the pulse ranging from 1 Hz to hundreds of thousands of Hz and beyond theoretically to infinity. This is often a source of confusion, not only among practitioners, but among manufacturers of devices as well. In engineering terms, the term "frequency" should only be used with a pure sine wave. In this one case, frequency is the same as the pulse repetition rate. With any other waveform (i.e., square, rectangular, triangular, etc.) there are an infinite number of harmonic frequencies generated in each pulse.

The interplay of harmonics identify a musical instrument as a specific aural experience. While some people would prefer the sound of a specific note on a piano, others would rather hear the same note played on a violin. Although the note is the same in each case, the harmonics vary. The interplay of these harmonics in electromedicine are essential to the results of a given treatment. With this in mind, we can begin to understand why one electromedical device may work on one patient, yet provide poor results on another. If we could predict what harmonics each tissue needed at a given time, we could design devices that would provide more consistent results in pain management, healing and regulating biological processes.

The body accepts frequencies and pulse repetition rates in a non-linear, differential manner. For example, low frequencies penetrate greater depths of tissue than high frequencies. Higher frequencies are auto-shielding; that is, they are limited in penetration because the resistance of tissue acts like a faraday cage, forming eddy-repulsion. This eddy current produces a back electromotive force and blocks the penetration. The reflection in any conductor (in this case the body) of input signals is a mirror-image of the opposite phase. The higher the frequency, the greater the rejection and shallower the penetration. Complex frequencies interact in the body causing a non-linear spread of current.

A prime example of a non-linear electrical device is a diode. A diode conducts current of one polarity far greater than the opposite polarity. Most living tissue exhibits non-linear characteristics, functioning somewhat like diodes.

With square and rectangular waves, a "shotgun" of thousands of frequencies occur simultaneously within each pulse, similar to buckshot scattering over a wide area. A sine wave resembles the rifle concept, where one "bullet" must strike a target accurately to be of use. Our present knowledge of electromedicine is not sufficient to determine the optimum frequency for a specific tissue response so the use of sine waves is not recommended.

The length of time the pulse lasts is called the width. This is usually measured in microseconds. It may seem odd to measure a width in time intervals rather than millimeters or other measure of length, until one understands that pulse width really refers to the time the wave is active. This is important with respect to how a given tissue may be affected and is part of a hypothetical "window" of optimal electric stimulation.

The body responds to the peak of electrical signals and to the number of electrons in that signal. The maximum charge per pulse is measured in microcoulombs and gives the total energy of each pulse. Using bullets as an analogy, we can see that a .22 bullet has less energy than a .45 bullet because it is lighter. The .22 might go faster, but with its increased energy, the .45 can knock down a bigger target. Consider each spike a bullet and the pulse width the energy carried by the bullet. In this case, the velocity of the bullet is the voltage, while the mass of the bullet is the energy, in microcoulombs.